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Henry the First

Толкование Перевод

1 ♦ first

♦ first /fɜ:st/
A a.

1 primo: the first comer, il primo venuto; a first coat of paint, una prima mano di vernice; the first officer of a ship, il primo ufficiale di bordo; the first two [three], i primi due [tre]; at first light, alle prime luci dell'alba

2 primo; più importante; principale: the first scientists in Europe, gli scienziati più importanti in Europa

B avv.

1 per primo; primo: ( sport) to come in first, arrivare primo

2 prima; per prima cosa: I must speak with him first, prima (o per prima cosa) devo parlare con lui; first of all, prima di tutto; per prima cosa; innanzitutto

3 (per) la prima volta: When did you first hear about it?, quando ne hai sentito parlare la prima volta?; when we first met, la prima volta che ci siamo incontrati; quando ci siamo conosciuti

4 inizialmente; all'inizio: when I first arrived, quando arrivai; all'inizio

5 piuttosto: He said he would die first, disse che piuttosto sarebbe morto

C n.

1 (il) primo; (la) prima: I was the first to see him, sono stato il primo a vederlo; They are the first to complain, sono i primi a protestare; Henry the First, Enrico primo

2 ( nelle date) –: April 1st, il 1 aprile

3 (in GB) laurea col massimo dei voti: to get a first in history, laurearsi in storia col massimo dei voti

4 (in GB) laureato col massimo dei voti

5 primo esempio (di qc.); primo caso; primato: to score a first, mettere a segno un primato

6 (autom.) prima ( marcia o velocità)

7 primo premio

8 ( USA, baseball) prima base

● (med.) first aid, pronto soccorso □ first-aid kit, cassetta di pronto soccorso □ first-aid station, posto di pronto soccorso □ first-aid training, addestramento al pronto soccorso □ first and foremost, soprattutto; anzitutto □ first and last, soprattutto □ first base, ( sport: baseball) prima base; (fig. USA) fase iniziale, primo stadio □ first best, ottimale; ideale; (econ.) ‘first best’: a first-best setting, un contesto ideale; (econ.) a first-best equilibrium, un equilibrio di first best □ first-born, il primo nato ( di figli); primogenito □ (geol.) first bottom, fondovalle fluviale □ first class, (sost.) (ferr., aeron.) prima classe; (rif. a corrispondenza, in GB) posta prioritaria; (market.) prima qualità ( di merce): to travel first class, viaggiare in prima classe; to send a letter first class, spedire una lettera per posta prioritaria □ first-class, (agg.) (ferr., aeron.) di prima classe; (fig.) di prima qualità; eccellente; ( di corrispondenza) di posta prioritaria: a first-class seat, un posto di prima classe; a first-class hotel, un albergo di prima categoria; un albergo eccellente; (in GB) first-class honours (degree), laurea col massimo dei voti; first-class mail, posta prioritaria; first-class stamp, francobollo di posta prioritaria □ first-degree, (med.) di primo grado: first-degree burns, ustioni di primo grado; (leg., in USA) first-degree murder, omicidio di primo grado □ (anat.) first finger, (dito) indice □ first floor, (in GB) primo piano; (in USA) pianterreno □ (in Scozia) first-footer, il primo ospite che entra in una casa dopo la mezzanotte dell'ultimo dell'anno □ (in Scozia) first-footing, visita per gli auguri di Capodanno □ first fruits, primizie; (fig.) primi frutti del proprio lavoro □ (autom.) first gear, prima (marcia) □ ( anche fig.) first-generation, della (o di) prima generazione □ ( sport) first half, primo tempo ( di una partita in due tempi) □ (rag.) first in, first out ► FIFO □ (in USA) first lady, moglie del Presidente degli USA; ( anche) moglie del Governatore di uno Stato della Federazione □ first language, lingua madre; madrelingua □ (mil., in USA) □ First Lieutenant, tenente □ first mate, primo ufficiale; secondo (di bordo) □ First Minister, primo ministro (in Irlanda del Nord, Scozia e Galles) □ (tur., di biglietto aereo, combinazione, ecc.) first-minute, first minute ( acquistato con forte sconto molto prima della partenza) □ (comm., econ.) first mover, pioniere; ‘first mover’: first-mover advantage, vantaggio della prima mossa □ first name, nome proprio; nome di battesimo: to be on first name terms with sb., chiamare per nome q.; dare del tu a q. □ ( Canada) First Nations, Prime Nazioni ( nome collettivo per la popolazione indigena del Canada) □ (teatr., cinem.) first night, prima; première (franc.) □ first-nighter, assiduo (spettatore) di prime teatrali (o cinematografiche) □ (fin.) first of exchange, prima di cambio; prima copia di una cambiale □ (fam.) first off, per prima cosa; in primo luogo (correlato con next off, ► next) □ (leg.) first offender, reo incensurato; chi delinque per la prima volta □ first officer, (naut.) = first mate ► sopra; (aeron.) secondo pilota □ first or last, prima o poi; presto o tardi □ first-order, di prim'ordine; di prima classe □ first past the post, (ipp.) primo al traguardo; (fig., polit., in GB) sistema uninominale a un turno (o a scrutinio unico), uninominale secca; sistema maggioritario a maggioranza semplice □ ( Canada) First Peoples = First Nations ► sopra □ (gramm. e fig.) first person, prima persona: written in the first person, scritto in prima persona □ first-rate, di prima qualità; di prim'ordine; di primaria importanza □ (polit.) first reading, prima lettura ( di un disegno di legge) □ (leg., market.) first refusal, diritto di prelazione; (diritto di) opzione □ ( USA) first respondent, addetto al primo intervento ( polizia, vigili del fuoco, ecc.) □ ( USA) first response, primo intervento □ (cinem., USA) first run, prima visione: a first-run theater, un cinema di prima visione □ first school, primo triennio delle elementari □ (polit.) First Secretary, primo ministro ( nel Galles, dal 1998 al 2000) □ first shift, primo turno; turno di giorno □ (cinem.) first show, prima visione □ (autom.) first speed, prima (velocità) □ (mil.) first strike, attacco di sorpresa □ (mil., fis. nucl.) first-strike weapon, arma per attacco di sorpresa □ first string, (mus.) primo violino; (fig., sport) i titolari ( di una squadra) □ first-string, di prim'ordine; di prima qualità: a first-string scientist, uno scienziato di prim'ordine □ first team player, titolare □ (fam.) first thing (tomorrow), per prima cosa (domattina) □ First things first, cominciamo dalle cose più importanti □ first-time buyer, acquirente della prima casa □ first-timer, chi fa qc. per la prima volta; esordiente □ (naut.) first watch, prima comandata ( turno di guardia dalle 8 di sera a mezzanotte) □ (econ.) the First World, i paesi a economia forte; i paesi industrializzati □ at first, in principio; dapprima; sulle prime □ at first hand, di prima mano □ at first sight (o view, blush), a prima vista □ from first to last, dall'inizio alla fine; da cima a fondo □ from the first, fin dal principio □ in the first instance (o place), in primo luogo; prima di tutto; innanzi tutto □ (fam.) not to have the first idea, non avere la più pallida idea □ not to know the first thing about st., non sapere niente di qc.; non intendersene minimamente di qc. □ of the first water, ( di pietra preziosa) di acqua purissima; (fig.) della più bell'acqua □ (prov.) First come, first served, chi primo arriva è servito per primo; ( anche) chi tardi arriva male alloggia: DIALOGO → - Parent-teacher meeting- It's first come first served this time, questa volta funziona in base all'ordine di arrivo.
NOTA D'USO: - first o early?-

English-Italian dictionary > ♦ first
2 first

fə:st
1. adjective, adverb
(before all others in place, time or rank: the first person to arrive; The boy spoke first.) primero

2. adverb
(before doing anything else: `Shall we eat now?' `Wash your hands first!) primero

3. noun
(the person, animal etc that does something before any other person, animal etc: the first to arrive.) primero

- firstly
- first aid
- first-born
- first-class
- first-hand
- first-rate
- at first
- at first hand
- first and foremost
- first of all

first¹ adj primero

January is the first month of the year enero es el primer mes del año

it's the first time that I've been here es la primera vez que vengo aquí

Se usa también para decir la fecha

the first of May el uno de mayo

first² adv

1. primero

he came first in the race llegó el primero en la carrera / ganó la carrera

you play later, first you must finish your lunch podrás jugar luego, primero acaba de comer

2. por primera vez

I first saw her at university la vi por primera vez en la universidad

at first al principio

first of all primero

first

tr[fɜːst]

adjective

1 primero,-a

■ what was your first job? ¿cuál fue tu primer trabajo?

■ who was the first man on the moon? ¿quién fue el primer hombre que pisó la luna?

■ she was his first wife fue su primera esposa

■ for the first time in my life... por primera vez en mi vida...

■ my first reaction was to... mi reacción inicial fue...

adverb

1 (before anything else) primero

■ Jane spoke first Jane habló primero

■ when you get up, what do you do first? al levantarte, ¿qué es lo primero que haces?

■ first, I have to go to the bank primero, tengo que ir al banco

2 (for the first time) por primera vez

■ when we first met, he hated me cuando nos conocimos, me odiaba

■ the book was first published in 1990 el libro fue editado por primera vez en 1990

3 (in first place) primero, en primer lugar

■ there are several reasons: first,... hay varias razones: en primer lugar,...

4 (in preference to) antes

■ he said he'd die first dijo que antes, preferiría morir

noun

1 la primera vez

■ it's a first for me too! ¡es la primera vez para mí también!

pronoun

1 el primero, la primera, lo primero

■ Jack was the first to arrive Jack fue el primero en llegar

■ the first I knew about it lo primero que supe

■ that's the first I've heard about it primera noticia

■ Elizabeth I (the First) Isabel I (primera)

noun

1 (first-class degree) ≈ sobresaliente nombre masculino (título universitario que corresponde a la nota más alta)

2 (gear) primera

■ I can't put it into first no puedo meter primera

\

SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL

at first al principio

at first sight a primera vista

to come first (in race) llegar el primero 2 (in order) estar primero

first come, first served el que llega primero tiene prioridad

first of all en primer lugar

first thing a primera hora (de la mañana)

first things first lo primero es lo primero

from the first desde el principio

from first to last de principio a fin, desde el principio hasta el final

first aid primeros auxilios nombre masculino plural

first class primera clase nombre femenino

First Communion primera comunión nombre femenino

first floor SMALLBRITISH ENGLISH/SMALL primer piso 2 SMALLAMERICAN ENGLISH/SMALL planta baja

First Lady Primera Dama

first lieutenant teniente nombre masculino de navío

first mate primer oficial nombre masculino

first name nombre nombre masculino de pila

first night estreno

first offender delincuente nombre masculino sin antecedentes

first person SMALLLINGUISTICS/SMALL primera persona

First World War Primera Guerra Mundial

first ['fərst] adv

1) : primero

finish your homework first: primero termina tu tarea

first and foremost: ante todo

first of all: en primer lugar

2) : por primera vez

I saw it first in Boston: lo vi por primera vez en Boston

first adj

1) : primero

the first time: la primera vez

at first sight: a primera vista

in the first place: en primer lugar

the first ten applicants: los diez primeros candidatos

2) foremost: principal, primero

first tenor: tenor principal

first n

1) : primero m, -ra f (en una serie)

2) : primero m, primera parte f

3) or first gear : primera f

4)

at first : al principio

first

adj.

• delantero, -a adj.

• original adj.

• primer adj.

• primero, -a adj.

• principal adj.

adv.

• primera velocidad adv.

• primero adv.

n.

• primero s.m.

I fɜːrst, fɜːst
adjective

1)

a) ( initial) primero [primero becomes primer when it precedes a masculine singular noun]

the first president of the USA — el primer presidente de los EE UU

Henry I — (léase: Henry the First) Enrique I (read as: Enrique primero)

who's going to be first? — ¿quién va a ser el primero?

our horse was first — nuestro caballo llegó en primer lugar or el primero

first things first — primero lo más importante

b) (in seniority, standing) primero

the first eleven/fifteen — (BrE) el equipo titular

she's first in line to the throne — está primera or es la primera en la línea de sucesión al trono

2) ( elliptical use)

he'll be arriving on the first (of the month) — llegará el primero or (Esp tb) el uno (del mes)

he fell at the first — cayó en la primera valla (or el primer obstáculo etc)

he/she was the first to arrive — fue el primero/la primera en llegar

he came in an easy first — ganó fácilmente

the first she knew about it was when... — la primera noticia que tuvo de ello fue cuando...

3) (in phrases)

at first — al principio

from the first — desde el principio, desde el primer momento

from first to last — de(l) principio a(l) fin

II

adverb

1)

a) ( ahead of others) primero

he came first in the exam — sacó la mejor nota en el examen

which comes first, your family or your career? — ¿para ti qué está primero, tu familia o tu carrera?

I always put my children first — para mí antes que nada or primero están mis hijos

ladies first — primero las damas

first come, first served: tickets will be available on a first come, first served basis — se adjudicará(n) las entradas por riguroso orden de solicitud (or llegada etc)

b) (before other actions, events) primero, en primer lugar

first, I want to thank everyone for coming — en primer lugar or primero quiero agradecerles a todos que hayan venido

c) ( beforehand) antes, primero

d) ( for the first time) por primera vez

when I first met him — cuando lo conocí

e) ( rather) antes

form a coalition? I'd resign first — ¿formar una coalición? antes (que eso) renuncio!

2) (in phrases)

first and foremost — ante todo

first and last — por encima de todo

first of all — en primer lugar, antes que nada

III

noun

a) first (gear) ( Auto) (no art) primera f

b) (original idea, accomplishment) primicia f

another first for Acme Corp — otra primicia de Acme Corp

c) (BrE Educ) nota más alta de la escala de calificaciones de un título universitario

[fɜːst]
1.

ADJ primero; (before m sing n) primer

I was first! — ¡yo iba or estaba primero!

during the first three months of pregnancy — durante los primeros tres meses de embarazo

he felt a bit lonely for the first few days — los primeros días se sentía un poco solo

the first three correct answers win a prize — las tres primeras respuestas correctas se llevan un premio

• at first — al principio

• on the first floor — (Brit) en el primer piso; (US) en la planta baja

• from first to last — de principio a fin

• in the first place — en primer lugar

to win first place — (in competition) conseguir el primer puesto, ganar

• to win first prize — ganar el primer premio

• first strike weapon — arma f de primer golpe

• the first time — la primera vez
instance 1., 2), thing 2)
2. ADV

1) (in place, priority) primero

first one, then another — primero uno, después otro

we arrived first — fuimos los primeros en llegar, llegamos los primeros

ladies first — las señoras primero

women and children first! — ¡las mujeres y los niños primero!

• first of all — ante todo, antes que nada

• to come first — (in race) ganar, llegar el primero; (=have priority) estar primero, tener prioridad

the customer/your homework must come first — el cliente es lo primero/tus deberes son lo primero

• first and foremost — ante todo, antes que nada

• to get in first — (in conversation, process) adelantarse

• you go first! — ¡tú primero!, ¡pasa tú!

• head first — de cabeza

• you have to put your children's needs first — primero están las necesidades de tus hijos

- first come, first served

free tickets, on a first-come-first-served basis — entradas gratis, por riguroso orden de llegada

2) (in time) (=before anything else) primero, antes de nada

first, I need a drink — primero or antes de nada or antes que nada, necesito una copa

first, I don't like it, second, I haven't got the money — lo primero: no me gusta, lo segundo: no dispongo del dinero

• first and last — (=above all) por encima de todo

• first off * — primero de todo, antes de nada

3) (=for the first time) por primera vez

the word was first used in 1835 — la palabra se usó por primera vez en 1835

I first met him in Paris — lo conocí en París

4) (=rather) primero, antes

let him in this house? I'd kill him first! — ¿dejarle pisar esta casa? ¡primero or antes lo mato!

I'd die first! — ¡antes me muero!

3.

PRON

the first of January — el primero de enero, el uno de enero

it's the first I've heard of it — ahora me entero, no lo sabía

Charles the First — Carlos Primero

• he came in an easy first — llegó el primero con ventaja

• from the (very) first — desde el principio

• to be the first to do sth — ser el primero en hacer algo

they were the first to arrive — fueron los primeros en llegar, llegaron los primeros

4. N

1) (Aut) primera f

in first — en primera

2) (Brit) (Univ) ≈ sobresaliente m

he got a first in French — ≈ se ha licenciado en francés con una media de sobresaliente

See:

see cultural note DEGREE in degree

5.

CPD

first aid N — primeros auxilios mpl
first-aid
first aider N — socorrista mf

first base N — (Baseball) primera base f

- not to get to first base

first blood N —

• to draw first blood — anotar el primer tanto

• first blood to sb — primer tanto para algn

first cousin N — primo(-a) m / f hermano(-a)

first degree N — licenciatura f

first edition N — primera edición f ; [of early or rare book] edición f príncipe

first family N (US) [of president] —

the first family — la familia del presidente

first form or year N — (Scol) primer curso de secundaria

first-year student — (Univ) estudiante mf de primer año (de carrera universitaria)

first gear N — (Aut) primera f

first grade N — (US) primero m de primaria; first-grade

first hand N —

• at first hand — directamente

- see sth at first hand

first lady N — (US) primera dama f

the first lady of jazz — la gran dama del jazz

first language N — (=mother tongue) lengua f materna; [of country] lengua f principal

first lieutenant N — (US) (Aer) teniente mf ; (Brit) (Naut) teniente mf de navío

first light N — amanecer m, alba f

• at first light — al amanecer, al alba

first mate N — primer oficial m, primera oficial f

first minister N — (in Scotland) primer(a) ministro(-a) m / f

first name N — nombre m (de pila)

to be on first name terms with sb — tutear a algn

first night N — (Theat) estreno m

first offender N — (Jur) delincuente mf sin antecedentes penales

first officer N — primer oficial m, primera oficial f

first performance N — (Theat, Mus) estreno m

first person N — (Ling) primera persona f

first person plural N (Gram) —

the first person plural — la primera persona del plural

first school N — (Brit) escuela para niños entre cinco y nueve años

first secretary, First Secretary N — (in Wales) primer(a) ministro(-a) m / f de Gales

first violin N — primer violín m, primera violín f

First World N —

the First World — el primer mundo

First World countries NPL — los países del primer mundo

First World War N —

the First World War — la Primera Guerra Mundial

First World War battlefield N — campo m de batalla de la Primera Guerra Mundial

first year N (Scol) — = first form

* * *

I [fɜːrst, fɜːst]
adjective

1)

a) ( initial) primero [primero becomes primer when it precedes a masculine singular noun]

the first president of the USA — el primer presidente de los EE UU

Henry I — (léase: Henry the First) Enrique I (read as: Enrique primero)

who's going to be first? — ¿quién va a ser el primero?

our horse was first — nuestro caballo llegó en primer lugar or el primero

first things first — primero lo más importante

b) (in seniority, standing) primero

the first eleven/fifteen — (BrE) el equipo titular

she's first in line to the throne — está primera or es la primera en la línea de sucesión al trono

2) ( elliptical use)

he'll be arriving on the first (of the month) — llegará el primero or (Esp tb) el uno (del mes)

he fell at the first — cayó en la primera valla (or el primer obstáculo etc)

he/she was the first to arrive — fue el primero/la primera en llegar

he came in an easy first — ganó fácilmente

the first she knew about it was when... — la primera noticia que tuvo de ello fue cuando...

3) (in phrases)

at first — al principio

from the first — desde el principio, desde el primer momento

from first to last — de(l) principio a(l) fin

II

adverb

1)

a) ( ahead of others) primero

he came first in the exam — sacó la mejor nota en el examen

which comes first, your family or your career? — ¿para ti qué está primero, tu familia o tu carrera?

I always put my children first — para mí antes que nada or primero están mis hijos

ladies first — primero las damas

first come, first served: tickets will be available on a first come, first served basis — se adjudicará(n) las entradas por riguroso orden de solicitud (or llegada etc)

b) (before other actions, events) primero, en primer lugar

first, I want to thank everyone for coming — en primer lugar or primero quiero agradecerles a todos que hayan venido

c) ( beforehand) antes, primero

d) ( for the first time) por primera vez

when I first met him — cuando lo conocí

e) ( rather) antes

form a coalition? I'd resign first — ¿formar una coalición? antes (que eso) renuncio!

2) (in phrases)

first and foremost — ante todo

first and last — por encima de todo

first of all — en primer lugar, antes que nada

III

noun

a) first (gear) ( Auto) (no art) primera f

b) (original idea, accomplishment) primicia f

another first for Acme Corp — otra primicia de Acme Corp

c) (BrE Educ) nota más alta de la escala de calificaciones de un título universitario

English-spanish dictionary > first
3 the

ðə, ði
adjective

(The form ðə is used before words beginning with a consonant eg the house or consonant sound eg the union ðə'ju:njən; the form ði is used before words beginning with a vowel eg the apple or vowel sound eg the honour ði 'onə) el, la, los, las

1) (used to refer to a person, thing etc mentioned previously, described in a following phrase, or already known: Where is the book I put on the table?; Who was the man you were talking to?; My mug is the tall blue one; Switch the light off!)

2) (used with a singular noun or an adjective to refer to all members of a group etc or to a general type of object, group of objects etc: The horse is running fast.; I spoke to him on the telephone; He plays the piano/violin very well.) el, la

3) (used to refer to unique objects etc, especially in titles and names: the Duke of Edinburgh; the Atlantic (Ocean).) el, la

4) (used after a preposition with words referring to a unit of quantity, time etc: In this job we are paid by the hour.) el, la, los, las

5) (used with superlative adjectives and adverbs to denote a person, thing etc which is or shows more of something than any other: He is the kindest man I know; We like him (the) best of all.) el, la, los, las

6) ((often with all) used with comparative adjectives to show that a person, thing etc is better, worse etc: He has had a week's holiday and looks (all) the better for it.) mucho

•

- the...
- the...

the det el / la

the boy el chico

the Mediterranean Sea el mar Mediterráneo the se usa también para decir la fecha

Tuesday the fifth of May martes, cinco de mayo

the

tr[ðə] (Delante de una vocal se pronuncia tr[ðɪ]; con enfasis tr[ðiː])

definite article

1 el, la (plural) los, las

■ the sun is shining el sol brilla

■ the moon is full la luna está llena

■ we went to the cinema fuimos al cine

■ he's from the next village es del pueblo al lado

■ the Queen of England la Reina de Inglaterra

■ the river Thames el río Támesis

■ he's the richest man in the world es el hombre más rico del mundo

■ the English are not famous for their cooking los ingleses no tienen fama por su cocina

■ the Browns are very friendly los Brown son muy amables

■ Elizabeth the Second Isabel segunda

2 (per) por

■ we are paid by the hour nos pagan por horas

3 (emphasis) el, la, los, las

■ you're not the Paul Newman, are you? no serás el auténtico Paul Newman, ¿verdad?

adverb

1 (with comparatives)

■ the more you have, the more you want cuanto más se tiene, más se quiere

■ the sooner the better cuanto antes mejor

■ the less said, the better cuanto menos digas, mejor

■ the more the merrier cuantos más seamos, más nos divertiremos

the [ðə,] before vowel sounds usu [ði:] adv

1) (used to indicate comparison)

the sooner the better: cuanto más pronto, mejor

she likes this one the best: éste es el que más le gusta

2) (used as a conjunction) : cuanto

the more I learn, the less I understand: cuanto más aprendo, menos entiendo

the art

: el, la, los, las

the gloves: los guantes

the suitcase: la maleta

forty cookies to the box: cuarenta galletas por caja

the (Catholic) church

n.

• Roma s.f.

adv.

• cuánto adv.

art.

• el art.

• la art.

• las art.

• lo art.

• los art.

art.def.

• la art.def.

I before vowel ði, ðɪ; before consonant ðə, strong form ðiː
definite article

1) (sing) el, la; (pl) los, las

2) (emphatic use)

do you mean the Dr Black? — ¿te refieres al famoso Dr Black?

it's the novel to read just now — en este momento, es la novela que hay que leer

3)

a) ( with names)

Henry the First — Enrique primero

the Smiths — los Smith

b) (in abstractions, generalizations) (+ sing vb)

the possible/sublime — lo posible/sublime

the young/old — los jóvenes/viejos

4) ( per) por

three dollars the yard — tres dólares la yarda

they sell it by the square foot — lo venden por pie cuadrado

I get paid by the hour — me pagan por hora

5) ( used instead of possessive pron) (colloq) (sing) el, la; (pl) los, las

how's the family? — ¿qué tal la familia? (fam)

II before vowel ði; before consonant ðə
adverb (+ comp)

a) (as conj) cuanto

the more you have, the more you want — cuanto más tienes, más quieres

the sooner, the better — cuanto antes, mejor

b) (in comparisons)

I'm the richer for this experience — me he enriquecido con esta experiencia

that's all the more reason not to give in — mayor razón para no ceder

••
Cultural note:

the American Dream

En Estados Unidos, el sueño americano es la creencia que cualquier persona que trabaje duro puede alcanzar el éxito económico o social. Para los inmigrantes y las minorías, este sueño también incluye libertad e igualdad de derechos

(strong form) [ðiː] (weak form) [ˌðǝ]
1. DEF ART

1) (singular) el/la; (plural) los/las

the boy — el niño

the woman — la mujer

the cars — los coches

the chairs — las sillas

do you know the Smiths? — ¿conoce a los Smith?

how's the leg? — ¿cómo va la pierna?

• all the... — todo el.../toda la..., todos los.../todas las...

• I'll meet you at the bank/station — quedamos en el banco/la estación

• the cheek of it! — ¡qué frescura!

• he's the man for the job — es el más indicado para el puesto

• from the — del/de la, de los/las

it's ten miles from the house/village — está a diez millas de la casa/del pueblo

• I haven't the money — no tengo dinero

• of the — del/de la, de los/las

the soup of the day — la sopa del día

it was the year of the student riots — fue el año de los disturbios estudiantiles

• oh, the pain! — ¡ay qué dolor!

• he hasn't the sense to understand — no tiene bastante inteligencia para comprender

• I haven't the time — no tengo tiempo

• to the — al/a la, a los/las

we went to the theatre — fuimos al teatro

2) (+ adjective)

a) (denoting plural) los(-las)

the rich and the poor — los ricos y los pobres

b) (denoting sing) lo

within the realms of the possible — dentro de lo posible

the good and the beautiful — lo bueno y lo bello

3) (+ noun) (denoting whole class) el(-la)

to play the piano/flute — tocar el piano/la flauta

in this age of the computer... — en esta época del ordenador...

4) (+ comparative) el(-la)

she was the elder — era la mayor

5) (distributive)

50 pence the pound — 50 peniques la libra

• eggs are usually sold by the dozen — los huevos se venden normalmente por docena

paid by the hour — pagado por hora

• 25 miles to the gallon — 25 millas por galón

700 lire to the dollar — 700 liras por dólar

6) (emphatic)

you don't mean the professor Bloggs? — ¿quieres decir el profesor Bloggs del que tanto se habla?

it was the colour of 1995 — fue el color que estaba tan de moda en 1995

7) (in titles)

Richard the Second — Ricardo Segundo

Ivan the Terrible — Iván el Terrible

2.

ADV

• she looks all the better for it — se la ve mucho mejor por eso

it will be all the better — será tanto mejor

• the more he works the more he earns — cuanto más trabaja más gana

(all) the more so because... — tanto más cuanto que...

the more... the less — mientras más... menos...

• the sooner the better — cuanto antes mejor

* * *

I before vowel [ði, ðɪ]; before consonant [ðə], strong form [ðiː]
definite article

1) (sing) el, la; (pl) los, las

2) (emphatic use)

do you mean the Dr Black? — ¿te refieres al famoso Dr Black?

it's the novel to read just now — en este momento, es la novela que hay que leer

3)

a) ( with names)

Henry the First — Enrique primero

the Smiths — los Smith

b) (in abstractions, generalizations) (+ sing vb)

the possible/sublime — lo posible/sublime

the young/old — los jóvenes/viejos

4) ( per) por

three dollars the yard — tres dólares la yarda

they sell it by the square foot — lo venden por pie cuadrado

I get paid by the hour — me pagan por hora

5) ( used instead of possessive pron) (colloq) (sing) el, la; (pl) los, las

how's the family? — ¿qué tal la familia? (fam)

II before vowel [ði]; before consonant [ðə]
adverb (+ comp)

a) (as conj) cuanto

the more you have, the more you want — cuanto más tienes, más quieres

the sooner, the better — cuanto antes, mejor

b) (in comparisons)

I'm the richer for this experience — me he enriquecido con esta experiencia

that's all the more reason not to give in — mayor razón para no ceder

••
Cultural note:

the American Dream

En Estados Unidos, el sueño americano es la creencia que cualquier persona que trabaje duro puede alcanzar el éxito económico o social. Para los inmigrantes y las minorías, este sueño también incluye libertad e igualdad de derechos

English-spanish dictionary > the
4 Henry, Joseph

SUBJECT AREA: Electricity, Telecommunications

[br]

b. 17 December 1797 Albany, New York, USA

d. 13 May 1878 Washington, DC, USA

[br]

American scientist after whom the unit of inductance is named.

[br]

Sent to stay with relatives at the age of 6 because of the illness of his father, when the latter died in 1811 Henry was apprenticed to a silversmith and then turned to the stage. Whilst he was ill himself, a book on science fired his interest and he began studying at Albany Academy, working as a tutor to finance his studies. Initially intending to pursue medicine, he then spent some time as a surveyor before becoming Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy at Albany Academy in 1826. There he became interested in the improvement of electromagnets and discovered that the use of an increased number of turns of wire round the core greatly increased their power; by 1831 he was able to supply to Yale a magnet capable of lifting almost a ton weight. During this time he also discovered the principles of magnetic induction and self-inductance. In the same year he made, but did not patent, a cable telegraph system capable of working over a distance of 1 mile (1.6 km). It was at this time, too, that he found that adiabatic expansion of gases led to their sudden cooling, thus paving the way for the development of refrigerators. For this he was recommended for, but never received, the Copley Medal of the Royal Society. Five years later he became Professor of Natural Philosophy at New Jersey College (later Princeton University), where he deduced the laws governing the operation of transformers and observed that changes in magnetic flux induced electric currents in conductors. Later he also observed that spark discharges caused electrical effects at a distance. He therefore came close to the discovery of radio waves. In 1836 he was granted a year's leave of absence and travelled to Europe, where he was able to meet Michael Faraday. It was with his help that in 1844 Samuel Morse set up the first patented electric telegraph, but, sadly, the latter seems to have reaped all the credit and financial rewards. In 1846 he became the first secretary of the Washington Smithsonian Institute and did much to develop government support for scientific research. As a result of his efforts some 500 telegraph stations across the country were equipped with meteorological equipment to supply weather information by telegraph to a central location, a facility that eventually became the US National Weather Bureau. From 1852 he was a member of the Lighthouse Board, contributing to improvements in lighting and sound warning systems and becoming its chairman in 1871. During the Civil War he was a technical advisor to President Lincoln. He was a founder of the National Academy of Science and served as its President for eleven years.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

President, American Association for the Advancement of Science 1849. President, National Academy of Science 1893–1904. In 1893, to honour his work on induction, the International Congress of Electricians adopted the henry as the unit of inductance.

Bibliography

1824. "On the chemical and mechanical effects of steam". 1825. "The production of cold by the rarefaction of air".

1832, "On the production of currents \& sparks of electricity \& magnetism", American

Journal of Science 22:403.

"Theory of the so-called imponderables", Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science 6:84.

Further Reading

Smithsonian Institution, 1886, Joseph Henry, Scientific Writings, Washington DC.

KF

Biographical history of technology > Henry, Joseph
5 the Black Prince

ист.

"Чёрный принц" [Эдуард, принц Уэльский, сын короля Эдуарда III (1330-76), прозванный так потому, что он носил чёрные латы]

Canterbury... within, a welter of tombs, altars, tablets, shrines: Henry IV, Thomas a Becket, Archbishop Laud, the Huguenots, and Edward, the Black Prince (Th. Dreiser, ‘The Stoic’, ch. 33) — Кентербери... Какое множество могил, склепов, надгробных памятников: Генрих IV, Томас Бекет, архиепископ Лод, гугеноты и Эдуард - Черный принц.

‘The first dog I ever had was called Prince. I called him after the Black Prince. You know, the fellow who...’ ‘Massacred all the women and children in Limoges.’ ‘I don't remember that.’ ‘The history books gloss it over.’ (Gr. Greene, ‘The Quiet American’, part II, ch. 1) — - Мою первую собаку звали Принц. Я назвал ее в честь Черного принца. Знаете, того самого, который... - Вырезал всех женщин и детей в Лиможе? - Этого я не припоминаю. - История умалчивает о его подвиге.

Large English-Russian phrasebook > the Black Prince
6 the ten commandments

1) уст.; ирон. женские ногти, "коготки" [букв. десять заповедей; выражение популяризировано Шекспиром; см. цитату]

Duchess of Gloucester: "...Could I come near your beauty with my nails, I'd set my ten commandments in your face." (W. Shakespeare, ‘King Henry VI’, part II, act I, sc. 3) — Герцогиня Глостерская: "...Да, красотка, когда б Могла, то на лице твоем ногтями Все заповеди написала б я!"

I'll set my ten commandments in the face o' the first look that lays a finger on him. (W. Scott, ‘Waverley’, ch. XXX) — Я вцеплюсь в физиономию всякого, кто посмеет притронуться к нему пальцем.

2) уст.; ирон. следы от ногтей, царапины

Don't put your tongue into your cheek at me... or I'll write the ten commandments on your face. (Fr. Marryat, ‘The King's Own’, ch. XL) — Не насмехайтесь надо мной... а то на вашей физиономии останутся следы моих ногтей.

Large English-Russian phrasebook > the ten commandments
7 first refusal

право первого выбора, преимущественной покупки

If you're getting out, John, I'd like first refusal if you want to sell. I've got cash to close any deal we might make. (D. Stuart, ‘The Driven’, ch. 19) — Если ты решил уехать, Джон, я хотел бы иметь преимущественное право покупки скота. Если, конечно, ты захочешь продать его. Денег у меня хватит.

Henry: "...Let me tell you about this play. I had first refusal on it - that means, I saw it first." (J. O'Hara, ‘The Searching Sun’, act III) — Генри: "...Разрешите мне рассказать вам об этой пьесе. Я первый познакомился с рукописью, был, так сказать, первый ее читатель."

Large English-Russian phrasebook > first refusal
8 First in War, First in Peace, and First in the Hearts of His Countrymen

"Первый в дни войны, первый в мирное время, первый в сердцах соотечественников"

Слова, включенные генералом Г. Ли [ Lee, Henry] в резолюцию Конгресса [ Congress, U.S.] от 19 декабря 1799 в связи со смертью Дж. Вашингтона [ Washington, George]. Ли повторил их 26 декабря 1799 в Филадельфии в речи, посвященной памяти первого президента США. Фразе было суждено стать самой известной характеристикой Вашингтона

English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > First in War, First in Peace, and First in the Hearts of His Countrymen
9 Ford, Henry

SUBJECT AREA: Automotive engineering, Land transport

[br]

b. 30 July 1863 Dearborn, Michigan, USA

d. 7 April 1947 Dearborn, Michigan, USA

[br]

American pioneer motor-car maker and developer of mass-production methods.

[br]

He was the son of an Irish immigrant farmer, William Ford, and the oldest son to survive of Mary Litogot; his mother died in 1876 with the birth of her sixth child. He went to the village school, and at the age of 16 he was apprenticed to Flower brothers' machine shop and then at the Drydock \& Engineering Works in Detroit. In 1882 he left to return to the family farm and spent some time working with a 1 1/2 hp steam engine doing odd jobs for the farming community at $3 per day. He was then employed as a demonstrator for Westinghouse steam engines. He met Clara Jane Bryant at New Year 1885 and they were married on 11 April 1888. Their only child, Edsel Bryant Ford, was born on 6 November 1893.

At that time Henry worked on steam engine repairs for the Edison Illuminating Company, where he became Chief Engineer. He became one of a group working to develop a "horseless carriage" in 1896 and in June completed his first vehicle, a "quadri cycle" with a two-cylinder engine. It was built in a brick shed, which had to be partially demolished to get the carriage out.

Ford became involved in motor racing, at which he was more successful than he was in starting a car-manufacturing company. Several early ventures failed, until the Ford Motor Company of 1903. By October 1908 they had started with production of the Model T. The first, of which over 15 million were built up to the end of its production in May 1927, came out with bought-out steel stampings and a planetary gearbox, and had a one-piece four-cylinder block with a bolt-on head. This was one of the most successful models built by Ford or any other motor manufacturer in the life of the motor car.

Interchangeability of components was an important element in Ford's philosophy. Ford was a pioneer in the use of vanadium steel for engine components. He adopted the principles of Frederick Taylor, the pioneer of time-and-motion study, and installed the world's first moving assembly line for the production of magnetos, started in 1913. He installed blast furnaces at the factory to make his own steel, and he also promoted research and the cultivation of the soya bean, from which a plastic was derived.

In October 1913 he introduced the "Five Dollar Day", almost doubling the normal rate of pay. This was a profit-sharing scheme for his employees and contained an element of a reward for good behaviour. About this time he initiated work on an agricultural tractor, the "Fordson" made by a separate company, the directors of which were Henry and his son Edsel.

In 1915 he chartered the Oscar II, a "peace ship", and with fifty-five delegates sailed for Europe a week before Christmas, docking at Oslo. Their objective was to appeal to all European Heads of State to stop the war. He had hoped to persuade manufacturers to replace armaments with tractors in their production programmes. In the event, Ford took to his bed in the hotel with a chill, stayed there for five days and then sailed for New York and home. He did, however, continue to finance the peace activists who remained in Europe. Back in America, he stood for election to the US Senate but was defeated. He was probably the father of John Dahlinger, illegitimate son of Evangeline Dahlinger, a stenographer employed by the firm and on whom he lavished gifts of cars, clothes and properties. He became the owner of a weekly newspaper, the Dearborn Independent, which became the medium for the expression of many of his more unorthodox ideas. He was involved in a lawsuit with the Chicago Tribune in 1919, during which he was cross-examined on his knowledge of American history: he is reputed to have said "History is bunk". What he actually said was, "History is bunk as it is taught in schools", a very different comment. The lawyers who thus made a fool of him would have been surprised if they could have foreseen the force and energy that their actions were to release. For years Ford employed a team of specialists to scour America and Europe for furniture, artefacts and relics of all kinds, illustrating various aspects of history. Starting with the Wayside Inn from South Sudbury, Massachusetts, buildings were bought, dismantled and moved, to be reconstructed in Greenfield Village, near Dearborn. The courthouse where Abraham Lincoln had practised law and the Ohio bicycle shop where the Wright brothers built their first primitive aeroplane were added to the farmhouse where the proprietor, Henry Ford, had been born. Replicas were made of Independence Hall, Congress Hall and the old City Hall in Philadelphia, and even a reconstruction of Edison's Menlo Park laboratory was installed. The Henry Ford museum was officially opened on 21 October 1929, on the fiftieth anniversary of Edison's invention of the incandescent bulb, but it continued to be a primary preoccupation of the great American car maker until his death.

Henry Ford was also responsible for a number of aeronautical developments at the Ford Airport at Dearborn. He introduced the first use of radio to guide a commercial aircraft, the first regular airmail service in the United States. He also manufactured the country's first all-metal multi-engined plane, the Ford Tri-Motor.

Edsel became President of the Ford Motor Company on his father's resignation from that position on 30 December 1918. Following the end of production in May 1927 of the Model T, the replacement Model A was not in production for another six months. During this period Henry Ford, though officially retired from the presidency of the company, repeatedly interfered and countermanded the orders of his son, ostensibly the man in charge. Edsel, who died of stomach cancer at his home at Grosse Point, Detroit, on 26 May 1943, was the father of Henry Ford II. Henry Ford died at his home, "Fair Lane", four years after his son's death.

[br]

Bibliography

1922, with S.Crowther, My Life and Work, London: Heinemann.

Further Reading

R.Lacey, 1986, Ford, the Men and the Machine, London: Heinemann. W.C.Richards, 1948, The Last Billionaire, Henry Ford, New York: Charles Scribner.

IMcN

Biographical history of technology > Ford, Henry
10 Bell, Henry

SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping

[br]

b. 1767 Torphichen Mill, near Linlithgow, Scotland

d. 1830 Helensburgh, Scotland

[br]

Scottish projector of the first steamboat service in Europe.

[br]

The son of Patrick Bell, a millwright, Henry had two sisters and an elder brother and was educated at the village school. When he was 9 years old Henry was sent to lodge in Falkirk with an uncle and aunt of his mother's so that he could attend the school there. At the age of 12 he left school and agreed to become a mason with a relative. In 1783, after only three years, he was bound apprentice to his Uncle Henry, a millwright at Jay Mill. He stayed there for a further three years and then, in 1786, joined the firm of Shaw \& Hart, shipbuilders of Borrowstoneness. These were to be the builders of William Symington's hull for the Charlotte Dundas. He also spent twelve months with Mr James Inglis, an engineer of Bellshill, Lanarkshire, and then went to London to gain experience, working for the famous John Rennie for some eighteen months. By 1790 he was back in Glasgow, and a year later he took a partner, James Paterson, into his new business of builder and contractor, based in the Trongate. He later referred to himself as "architect", and his partnership with Paterson lasted seven years. He is said to have invented a discharging machine for calico printing, as well as a steam dredger for clearing the River Clyde.

The Baths Hotel was opened in Helensburgh in 1808, with the hotel-keeper, who was also the first provost of the town, being none other than Henry Bell. It has been suggested that Bell was also the builder of the hotel and this seems very likely. Bell installed a steam engine for pumping sea water out of the Clyde and into the baths, and at first ran a coach service to bring customers from Glasgow three days a week. The driver was his brother Tom. The coach was replaced by the Comet steamboat in 1812.

While Henry was busy with his provost's duties and making arrangements for the building of his steamboat, his wife Margaret, née Young, whom he married in March 1794, occupied herself with the management of the Baths Hotel. Bell did not himself manufacture, but supervised the work of experts: John and Charles Wood of Port Glasgow, builders of the 43ft 6 in. (13.25 m)-long hull of the Comet; David Napier of Howard Street Foundry for the boiler and other castings; and John Robertson of Dempster Street, who had previously supplied a small engine for pumping water to the baths at the hotel in Helensburgh, for the 3 hp engine. The first trials of the finished ship were held on 24 July 1812, when she was launched from Wood's yard. A regular service was advertised in the Glasgow Chronicle on 5 August and was the first in Europe, preceded only by that of Robert Fulton in the USA. The Comet continued to run until 1820, when it was wrecked.

Bell received little reward for his promotion of steam navigation, merely small pensions from the Clyde trustees and others. He was buried at the parish church of Rhu.

[br]

Further Reading

Edward Morris, 1844, Life of Henry Bell.

Henry Bell, 1813, Applying Steam Engines to Vessels.

IMcN

Biographical history of technology > Bell, Henry
11 Fourdrinier, Henry

SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing

[br]

b. 11 February 1766 London, England

d. 3 September 1854 Mavesyn Ridware, near Rugeley, Staffordshire, England

[br]

English pioneer of the papermaking machine.

[br]

Fourdrinier's father was a paper manufacturer and stationer of London, from a family of French Protestant origin. Henry took up the same trade and, with his brother Sealy (d. 1847), devoted many years to developing the papermaking machine. Their first patent was taken out in 1801, but success was still far off. A machine for making paper had been invented a few years previously by Nicolas Robert at the Didot's mill at Essonnes, south of Paris. Robert quarrelled with the Didots, who then contacted their brother-in-law in England, John Gamble, in an attempt to raise capital for a larger machine. Gamble and the Fourdriniers called in the engineer Bryan Donkin, and between them they patented a much improved machine in 1807. In the new machine, the paper pulp flowed on to a moving continuous woven wire screen and was then squeezed between rollers to remove much of the water. The paper thus formed was transferred to a felt blanket and passed through a second press to remove more water, before being wound while still wet on to a drum. For the first time, a continuous sheet of paper could be made. Other inventors soon made further improvements: in 1817 John Dickinson obtained a patent for sizing baths to improve the surface of the paper; while in 1820 Thomas Crompton patented a steam-heated drum round which the paper was passed to speed up the drying process. The development cost of £60,000 bankrupted the brothers. Although Parliament extended the patent for fourteen years, and the machine was widely adopted, they never reaped much profit from it. Tsar Alexander of Russia became interested in the papermaking machine while on a visit to England in 1814 and promised Henry Fourdrinier £700 per year for ten years for super-intending the erection of two machines in Russia; Henry carried out the work, but he received no payment. At the age of 72 he travelled to St Petersburg to seek recompense from the Tsar's successor Nicholas I, but to no avail. Eventually, on a motion in the House of Commons, the British Government awarded Fourdrinier a payment of £7,000. The paper trade, sensing the inadequacy of this sum, augmented it with a further sum which they subscribed so that an annuity could be purchased for Henry, then the only surviving brother, and his two daughters, to enable them to live in modest comfort. From its invention in ancient China (see Cai Lun), its appearance in the Middle Ages in Europe and through the first three and a half centuries of printing, every sheet of paper had to made by hand. The daily output of a hand-made paper mill was only 60–100 lb (27–45 kg), whereas the new machine increased that tenfold. Even higher speeds were achieved, with corresponding reductions in cost; the old mills could not possibly have kept pace with the new mechanical printing presses. The Fourdrinier machine was thus an essential element in the technological developments that brought about the revolution in the production of reading matter of all kinds during the nineteenth century. The high-speed, giant paper-making machines of the late twentieth century work on the same principle as the Fourdrinier of 1807.

[br]

Further Reading

R.H.Clapperton, 1967, The Paper-making Machine, Oxford: Pergamon Press. D.Hunter, 1947, Papermaking. The History and Technique of an Ancient Craft, London.

LRD

Biographical history of technology > Fourdrinier, Henry
12 Talbot, William Henry Fox

SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics

[br]

b. 11 February 1800 Melbury, England

d. 17 September 1877 Lacock, Wiltshire, England

[br]

English scientist, inventor of negative—positive photography and practicable photo engraving.

[br]

Educated at Harrow, where he first showed an interest in science, and at Cambridge, Talbot was an outstanding scholar and a formidable mathematician. He published over fifty scientific papers and took out twelve English patents. His interests outside the field of science were also wide and included Assyriology, etymology and the classics. He was briefly a Member of Parliament, but did not pursue a parliamentary career.

Talbot's invention of photography arose out of his frustrating attempts to produce acceptable pencil sketches using popular artist's aids, the camera discura and camera lucida. From his experiments with the former he conceived the idea of placing on the screen a paper coated with silver salts so that the image would be captured chemically. During the spring of 1834 he made outline images of subjects such as leaves and flowers by placing them on sheets of sensitized paper and exposing them to sunlight. No camera was involved and the first images produced using an optical system were made with a solar microscope. It was only when he had devised a more sensitive paper that Talbot was able to make camera pictures; the earliest surviving camera negative dates from August 1835. From the beginning, Talbot noticed that the lights and shades of his images were reversed. During 1834 or 1835 he discovered that by placing this reversed image on another sheet of sensitized paper and again exposing it to sunlight, a picture was produced with lights and shades in the correct disposition. Talbot had discovered the basis of modern photography, the photographic negative, from which could be produced an unlimited number of positives. He did little further work until the announcement of Daguerre's process in 1839 prompted him to publish an account of his negative-positive process. Aware that his photogenic drawing process had many imperfections, Talbot plunged into further experiments and in September 1840, using a mixture incorporating a solution of gallic acid, discovered an invisible latent image that could be made visible by development. This improved calotype process dramatically shortened exposure times and allowed Talbot to take portraits. In 1841 he patented the process, an exercise that was later to cause controversy, and between 1844 and 1846 produced The Pencil of Nature, the world's first commercial photographically illustrated book.

Concerned that some of his photographs were prone to fading, Talbot later began experiments to combine photography with printing and engraving. Using bichromated gelatine, he devised the first practicable method of photo engraving, which was patented as Photoglyphic engraving in October 1852. He later went on to use screens of gauze, muslin and finely powdered gum to break up the image into lines and dots, thus anticipating modern photomechanical processes.

Talbot was described by contemporaries as the "Father of Photography" primarily in recognition of his discovery of the negative-positive process, but he also produced the first photomicrographs, took the first high-speed photographs with the aid of a spark from a Leyden jar, and is credited with proposing infra-red photography. He was a shy man and his misguided attempts to enforce his calotype patent made him many enemies. It was perhaps for this reason that he never received the formal recognition from the British nation that his family felt he deserved.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

FRS March 1831. Royal Society Rumford Medal 1842. Grand Médaille d'Honneur, L'Exposition Universelle, Paris, 1855. Honorary Doctorate of Laws, Edinburgh University, 1863.

Bibliography

1839, "Some account of the art of photographic drawing", Royal Society Proceedings 4:120–1; Phil. Mag., XIV, 1839, pp. 19–21.

8 February 1841, British patent no. 8842 (calotype process).

1844–6, The Pencil of Nature, 6 parts, London (Talbot'a account of his invention can be found in the introduction; there is a facsimile edn, with an intro. by Beamont Newhall, New York, 1968.

Further Reading

H.J.P.Arnold, 1977, William Henry Fox Talbot, London.

D.B.Thomas, 1964, The First Negatives, London (a lucid concise account of Talbot's photograph work).

J.Ward and S.Stevenson, 1986, Printed Light, Edinburgh (an essay on Talbot's invention and its reception).

H.Gernsheim and A.Gernsheim, 1977, The History of Photography, London (a wider picture of Talbot, based primarily on secondary sources).

JW

Biographical history of technology > Talbot, William Henry Fox
13 Hoover, William Henry

SUBJECT AREA: Domestic appliances and interiors

[br]

b. 1849 New Berlin (now North Canton), Ohio, USA

d. 25 February 1932 North Canton, Ohio, USA

[br]

American founder of the Electric Suction Company, which manufactured and successfully marketed the first practical and portable suction vacuum cleaner.

[br]

Hoover was descended from a Swiss farming family called Hofer who emigrated from Basle and settled in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, in the early eighteenth century. By 1832 the family had become tanners and lived near North Berlin in Ohio. In 1870 William Henry Hoover, who had studied at Mount Union College, bought the tannery with his brothers and soon expanded the business to make horse collars and saddlery. The firm expanded to become W.H.Hoover \& Co. In the early years of the first decade of the twentieth century, horses were beginning to be replaced by the internal combustion engine, so Hoover needed a new direction for his firm. This he found in the suction vacuum cleaner devised in 1907 by J.Murray Spangler, a cousin of Hoover's wife. The first successful cleaner of this type had been operating in England since 1901 (see Booth), but was not a portable model. Attracted by the development of the small electric motor, Spangler produced a vertical cleaner with such a motor that sucked the dust through the machine and blew it into a bag attached to the handle. Spangler applied for a patent for his invention on 14 September in the same year; it was granted for a carpet sweeper and cleaner on 2 June 1908, but Spangler was unable to market it himself and sold the rights to Hoover. The Model O machine, which ran on small wheels, was immediately manufactured and marketed. Hoover's model was the first electric, one-person-operated, domestic vacuum cleaner and was instantly successful, although the main expansion of the business was delayed for some time until the greater proportion of houses were wired for electricity. The Hoover slogan, "it beats as it sweeps as it cleans", came to be true in 1926 with the introduction of the Model 700, which was the first cleaner to offer triple-action cleaning, a process which beat, swept and sucked at the carpet. Further advances in the 1930s included the use of magnesium and the early plastics.

[br]

Further Reading

G.Adamson, 1969, Machines at Home, Lutterworth Press.

How it Works: The Universal Encyclopaedia of Machines, Paladin. D.Yarwood, 1981, The British Kitchen, Batsford, Ch. 6.

DY

Biographical history of technology > Hoover, William Henry
14 Maudslay, Henry

SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering

[br]

b. 22 August 1771 Woolwich, Kent, England

d. 15 February 1831 Lambeth, London, England

[br]

English precision toolmaker and engineer.

[br]

Henry Maudslay was the third son of an ex-soldier and storekeeper at Woolwich Arsenal. At the age of 12 he was employed at the Arsenal filling cartridges; two years later he was transferred to the woodworking department, adjacent to the smithy, to which he moved when 15 years old. He was a rapid learner, and three years later Joseph Bramah took him on for the construction of special tools required for the mass-production of his locks. Maudslay was thus employed for the next eight years. He became Bramah's foreman, married his housekeeper, Sarah Tindale, and, unable to better himself, decided to leave and set up on his own. He soon outgrew his first premises in Wells Street and moved to Margaret Street, off Oxford Street, where some examples of his workmanship were displayed in the window. These caught the attention of a visiting Frenchman, de Bacquancourt; he was a friend of Marc Isambard Brunel, who was then in the early stages of designing the block-making machinery later installed at Portsmouth dockyard.

Brunel wanted first a set of working models, as he did not think that the Lords of the Admiralty would be capable of understanding engineering drawings; Maudslay made these for him within the next two years. Sir Samuel Bentham, Inspector-General of Naval Works, agreed that Brunel's system was superior to the one that he had gone some way in developing; the Admiralty approved, and an order was placed for the complete plant. The manufacture of the machinery occupied Maudslay for the next six years; he was assisted by a draughtsman whom he took on from Portsmouth dockyard, Joshua Field (1786–1863), who became his partner in Maudslay, Son and Field. There were as many as eighty employees at Margaret Street until, in 1810, larger premises became necessary and a new works was built at Lambeth Marsh where, eventually, there were up to two hundred workers. The new factory was flanked by two houses, one of which was occupied by Maudslay, the other by Field. The firm became noted for its production of marine steam-engines, notably Maudslay's table engine which was first introduced in 1807.

Maudslay was a consummate craftsman who was never happier than when working at his bench or at a machine tool; he was also one of the first engineers to appreciate the virtues of standardization. Evidence of this appreciation is to be found in his work in the development of the Bramah lock and then on the machine tools for the manufacture of ship's blocks to Marc Brunel's designs; possibly his most important contribution was the invention in 1797 of the metal lathe. He made a number of surface plates of the finest quality. The most celebrated of his numerous measuring devices was a micrometer-based machine which he termed his "Lord Chancellor" because, in the machine shop, it represented the "final court of appeal", measuring to one-thousandth of an inch.

[br]

Further Reading

1934–5, "Maudslay, Sons \& Field as general engineers", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 15, London.

1963, Engineering Heritage, Vol. 1, London: Institution of Mechanical Engineers. L.T.C.Rolt, 1965, Tools for the Job, London: Batsford.

W.Steeds, 1969, A History of Machine Tools 1700–1910, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

IMcN

Biographical history of technology > Maudslay, Henry
15 Perkin, Sir William Henry

SUBJECT AREA: Chemical technology, Synthetic materials, Textiles

[br]

b. 12 March 1838 London, England

d. 14 July 1907 Sudbury, England

[br]

English chemist, discoverer of aniline dyes, the first synthetic dyestuffs.

[br]

He early showed an aptitude for chemistry and in 1853 entered the Royal College of Chemistry as a student under A.W.von Hofmann, the first Professor at the College. By the end of his first year, he had carried out his first piece of chemical research, on the action of cyanogen chloride on phenylamine, which he published in the Journal of the Chemical Society (1857). He became honorary assistant to von Hofmann in 1857; three years previously he had set up his own chemical laboratory at home, where he had discovered the first of the azo dyes, aminoazonapththalene. In 1856 Perkin began work on the synthesis of quinine by oxidizing a salt of allyl toluidine with potassium dichromate. Substituting aniline, he obtained a dark-coloured precipitate which proved to possess dyeing properties: Perkin had discovered the first aniline dye. Upon receiving favourable reports on the new material from manufacturers of dyestuffs, especially Pullars of Perth, Perkin resigned from the College and turned to the commercial exploitation of his discovery. This proved highly successful. From 1858, the dye was manufactured at his Greenford Green works as "Aniline Purple" or "Tyrian Purple". It was later to be referred to by the French as mauve. Perkin's discovery led to the development of the modern dyestuffs industry, supplanting dyes from the traditional vegetable sources. In 1869, he introduced two new methods for making the red dye alizarin, in place of the process that involved the use of the madder plant (Rubia tinctorum). In spite of German competition, he dominated the British market until the end of 1873. After eighteen years in chemical industry, Perkin retired and devoted himself entirely to the pure chemical research which he had been pursuing since the 1850s. He eventually contributed ninety papers to the Chemical Society and further papers to other bodies, including the Royal Society. For example, in 1867 he published his synthesis of unsaturated organic acids, known as "Perkin's synthesis". Other papers followed, on the structure of "Aniline Purple". In 1881 Perkin drew attention to the magnetic-rotatory power of some of the substances he had been dealing with. From then on, he devoted particular attention to the application of this phenomenon to the determination of chemical structure.

Perkin won wide recognition for his discoveries and other contributions to chemistry.

The half-centenary of his great discovery was celebrated in July 1906 and later that year he received a knighthood.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

Knighted 1906. FRS 1866. President, Chemical Society 1883–5. President, Society of Chemical Industry 1884–5. Royal Society Royal Medal 1879; Davy Medal 1889.

Bibliography

26 August 1856, British patent no. 1984 (Aniline Purple).

1867, "The action of acetic anhydride upon the hydrides of salicyl, etc.", Journal of the Chemical Society 20:586 (the first description of Perkin's synthesis).

Further Reading

S.M.Edelstein, 1961, biography in Great Chemists, ed. E.Farber, New York: Interscience, pp. 757–72 (a reliable, short account).

R.Meldola, 1908, Journal of the Chemical Society 93:2,214–57 (the most detailed account).

LRD

Biographical history of technology > Perkin, Sir William Henry
16 Royce, Sir Frederick Henry

SUBJECT AREA: Automotive engineering, Land transport

[br]

b. 27 March 1863 Alwalton, Huntingdonshire, England

d. 22 April 1933 West Wittering, Sussex, England.

[br]

English engineer and industrialist.

[br]

Royce was the younger son of a flour miller. His father's death forced him to earn his own living from the age of 10 selling newspapers, as a post office messenger boy, and in other jobs. At the age of 14, he became an apprentice at the Great Northern Railway's locomotive works, but was unable to complete his apprenticeship due to a shortage of money. He moved to a tool company in Leeds, then in 1882 he became a tester for the London Electric Light \& Power Company and attended classes at the City \& Guilds Technical College. In the same year, the company made him Chief Electrical Engineer for the lighting of the streets of Liverpool.

In 1884, at the age of 21, he founded F.H. Royce \& Co (later called Royce Ltd, from 1894 to 1933) with a capital of £70, manufacturing arc lamps, dynamos and electric cranes. In 1903, he bought a 10 hp Deauville car which proved noisy and unreliable; he therefore designed his own car. By the end of 1903 he had produced a twocylinder engine which ran for many hundreds of hours driving dynamos; on 31 March 1904, a 10 hp Royce car was driven smoothly and silently from the works in Cooke Street, Manchester. This car so impressed Charles S. Rolls, whose London firm were agents for high-class continental cars, that he agreed to take the entire output from the Manchester works. In 1906 they jointly formed Rolls-Royce Ltd and at the end of that year Royce produced the first 40/50 hp Silver Ghost, which remained in production until 1925 when it was replaced by the Phantom and Wraith. The demand for the cars grew so great that in 1908 manufacture was transferred to a new factory in Derby.

In 1911 Royce had a breakdown due to overwork and his lack of attention to taking regular meals. From that time he never returned to the works but continued in charge of design from a drawing office in his home in the south of France and later at West Wittering, Sussex, England. During the First World War he designed the Falcon, Hawk and Condor engines as well as the VI2 Eagle, all of which were liquid-cooled. Later he designed the 36.7-litre Rolls-Royce R engines for the Vickers Supermarine S.6 and S.6B seaplanes which were entered for the Schneider Trophy (which they won in 1929 and 1931, the 5.5 having won in 1927 with a Napier Lion engine) and set a world speed record of 408 mph (657 km/h) in 1931; the 1941 Griffon engine was derived from the R.

Royce was an improver rather than an innovator, though he did invent a silent form of valve gear, a friction-damped slipper flywheel, the Royce carburettor and a spring drive for timing gears. He was a modest man with a remarkable memory who concentrated on perfecting the detail of every component. He married Minnie Punt, but they had no children. A bust of him at the Derby factory is captioned simply "Henry Royce, Mechanic".

[br]

Further Reading

R.Bird, 1995, Rolls Royce Heritage, London: Osprey.

IMcN

Biographical history of technology > Royce, Sir Frederick Henry
17 Warren, Henry Ellis

SUBJECT AREA: Horology

[br]

b. 21 May 1872 Boston, Massachusetts, USA

d. 21 September 1957 Ashland, Massachusetts, USA

[br]

American electrical engineer who invented the mains electric synchronous clock.

[br]

Warren studied electrical engineering at the Boston Institute of Technology (later to become the Massachusetts Institute of Technology) and graduated in 1894. In 1912 he formed the Warren Electric Clock Company to make a battery-powered clock that he had patented a few years earlier. The name was changed to the Warren Telechron (time at a distance) Company after he had started to produce synchronous clocks.

In 1840 Charles Wheatstone had produced an electric master clock that produced an alternating current with a frequency of one cycle per second and which was used to drive slave dials. This system was not successful, but when Ferranti introduced the first alternating current power generator at Deptford in 1895 Hope-Jones saw in it a means of distributing time. This did not materialize immediately because the power generators did not control the frequency of the current with sufficient accuracy, and a reliable motor whose speed was related to this frequency was not available. In 1916 Warren solved both problems: he produced a reliable self-starting synchronous electric motor and he also made a master clock which could be used at the power station to control accurately the frequency of the supply. Initially the power-generating companies were reluctant to support the synchronous clock because it imposed a liability to control the frequency of the supply and the gain was likely to be small because it was very frugal in its use of power. However, with the advent of the grid system, when several generators were connected together, it became imperative to control the frequency; it was realized that although the power consumption of individual clocks was small, collectively it could be significant as they ran continuously. By the end of the 1930s more than half the clocks sold in the USA were of the synchronous type. The Warren synchronous clock was introduced into Great Britain in 1927, following the setting up of a grid system by the Electricity Commission.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

Franklin Institute John Price Wetherill Medal. American Institute of Electrical Engineers Lamme Medal.

Bibliography

The patents for the synchronous motor are US patent nos. 1,283,432, 1,283,433 and 1,283,435, and those for the master clock are 1,283,431, 1,409,502 and 1,502,493 of 29 October 1918 onwards.

1919, "Utilising the time characteristics of alternating current", Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers 38:767–81 (Warren's first description of his system).

Further Reading

J.M.Anderson, 1991, "Henry Ellis Warren and his master clocks", National Association of Watch and Clock Collectors Bulletin 33:375–95 (provides biographical and technical details).

DV

Biographical history of technology > Warren, Henry Ellis
18 Eccles, William Henry

SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology, Telecommunications

[br]

b. 23 August 1875 Ulverston, Cumbria, England

d. 27 April 1966 Oxford, England

[br]

English physicist who made important contributions to the development of radio communications.

[br]

After early education at home and at private school, Eccles won a scholarship to the Royal College of Science (now Imperial College), London, where he gained a First Class BSc in physics in 1898. He then worked as a demonstrator at the college and studied coherers, for which he obtained a DSc in 1901. Increasingly interested in electrical engineering, he joined the Marconi Company in 1899 to work on oscillators at the Poole experimental radio station, but in 1904 he returned to academic life as Professor of Mathematics and Physics and Department Head at South West Polytechnic, Chelsea. There he discovered ways of using the negative resistance of galena-crystal detectors to generate oscillations and gave a mathematical description of the operation of the triode valve. In 1910 he became Reader in Engineering at University College, London, where he published a paper explaining the reflection of radio waves by the ionosphere and designed a 60 MHz short-wave transmitter. From 1916 to 1926 he was Professor of Applied Physics and Electrical Engineering at the Finsbury City \& Guilds College and a private consulting engineer. During the First World War he was a military scientific adviser and Secretary to the Joint Board of Scientific Societies. After the war he made many contributions to electronic-circuit development, many of them (including the Eccles-Jordan "flip-flop" patented in 1918 and used in binary counters) in conjunction with F.W.Jordan, about whom little seems to be known. Illness forced Eccles's premature academic retirement in 1926, but he remained active as a consultant for many years.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

FRS 1921. President, Institution of Electrical Engineers, 1926–7. President, Physical Society 1929. President, Radio Society of Great Britain.

Bibliography

1912, "On the diurnal variation of the electric waves occurring in nature and on the propagation of electric waves round the bend of the earth", Proceedings of the Royal Society 87:79. 1919, with F.W.Jordan, "Method of using two triode valves in parallel for generating oscillations", Electrician 299:3.

1915, Handbook of Wireless Telegraphy.

1921, Continuous Wave Wireless Telegraphy.

Further Reading

1971, "William Henry Eccles, 1875–1966", Biographical Memoirs of the Royal Society, London, 17.

See also: Heaviside, Oliver; Kennelly, Arthur Edwin

KF

Biographical history of technology > Eccles, William Henry
19 Davis, Robert Henry

SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping

[br]

b. 6 June 1870 London, England

d. 29 March 1965 Epsom, Surrey, England

[br]

English inventor of breathing, diving and escape apparatus.

[br]

Davis was the son of a detective with the City of London police. At the age of 11 he entered the employment of Siebe, Gorman \& Co., manufacturers of diving and other safety equipment since 1819, at their Lambeth works. By good fortune, his neat handwriting attracted the notice of Mr Gorman and he was transferred to work in the office. He studied hard after working hours and rose steadily in the firm. In his twenties he was promoted to Assistant Manager, then General Manager, Managing Director and finally Governing Director. He retired in 1960, having been made Life President the previous year, and continued to attend the office regularly until May 1964.

Davis's entire career was devoted to research and development in the firm's special field. In 1906 he perfected the first practicable oxygen-breathing apparatus for use in mine rescue; it was widely adopted and with modifications was still in use in the 1990s. With Professor Leonard Hill he designed a deep-sea diving-bell incorporating a decompression chamber. He also invented an oxygen-breathing apparatus and heated apparel for airmen flying at high altitudes.

Immediately after the first German gas attacks on the Western Front in April 1915, Davis devised a respirator, known as the stocking skene or veil mask. He quickly organized the mass manufacture of this device, roping in members of his family and placing the work in the homes of Lambeth: within 48 hours the first consignment was being sent off to France.

He was a member of the Admiralty Deep Sea Diving Committee, which in 1933 completed tables for the safe ascent of divers with oxygen from a depth of 300 ft (91 m). They were compiled by Davis in conjunction with Professors J.B.S.Haldane and Leonard Hill and Captain G.C.Damant, the Royal Navy's leading diving expert. With revisions these tables have been used by the Navy ever since. Davis's best-known invention was first used in 1929: the Davis Submarine Escape Apparatus. It became standard equipment on submarines until it was replaced by the Built-in Breathing System, which the firm began manufacturing in 1951.

The firm's works were bombed during the Second World War and were re-established at Chessington, Surrey. The extensive research facilities there were placed at the disposal of the Royal Navy and the Admiralty Experimental Diving Unit. Davis worked with Haldane and Hill on problems of the underwater physiology of working divers. A number of inventions issued from Chessington, such as the human torpedo, midget submarine and human minesweeper. In the early 1950s the firm helped to pioneer the use of underwater television to investigate the sinking of the submarine Affray and the crashed Comet jet airliners.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

Knighted 1932.

Bibliography

Davis was the author of several manuals on diving including Deep Sea Diving and Submarine Operations and Breathing in Irrespirable Atmospheres. He also wrote Resuscitation: A Brief Personal History of Siebe, Gorman \& Co. 1819–1957.

Further Reading

Obituary, 1965, The Times, 31 March, p. 16.

LRD

Biographical history of technology > Davis, Robert Henry
20 Berry, Henry

SUBJECT AREA: Canals, Ports and shipping

[br]

b. 1720 Parr (?), near St Helens, Lancashire, England

d. 30 July 1812 Liverpool, England

[br]

English canal and dock engineer who was responsible for the first true canal, as distinct from a canalized river, in England.

[br]

Little is known of Berry's early life, but it is certain that he knew the district around St Helens intimately, which was of assistance to him in his later canal works. He became Clerk and Assistant to Thomas Steers and proved his natural engineering ability in helping Steers in both the construction of the Newry navigation in Ireland and his supervision of the construction of Salthouse Dock in Liverpool. On Steers's death in 1750 Berry was appointed, at the age of 30, Dock Engineer for Liverpool Docks, and completed the Salthouse Dock three years later. In 1755 he was allowed by the Liverpool Authority—presumably because his full-time service was not required at the docks at that time—to survey and construct the Sankey Brook Navigation (otherwise known as the St Helens Canal), which was completed in 1757. Berry was instructed to make the brook navigable, but with the secret consent and connivance of one of the proprietors he built a lateral canal, the work commencing on 5 September 1755. This was the first dead-water canal in the country, as distinct from an improved river navigation, and preceded Brindley's Bridgewater Canal by some five or six years. On the canal he also constructed at Blackbrook the first pair of staircase locks to be built in England.

Berry later advised on improvements to the Weaver Navigation, and his design for the new locks was accepted. He also carried out in 1769 a survey for a Leeds and Liverpool Canal, but this was not proceeded with and it was left to others to construct this canal. He advised turnpike trustees on bridge construction, but his main work was in Liverpool dock construction and between 1767 and 1771 he built the George's Dock. His final dock work was King's Dock, which was opened on 3 October 1788; he resigned at the age of 68 when the dock was completed. He lived for another 24 years, during which he was described in the local directories as "gentleman" instead of "engineer" or "surveyor" as he had been previously.

[br]

Further Reading

S.A.Harris, 1937, "Liverpool's second dock engineer", Transactions of the Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire 89.

JHB

Biographical history of technology > Berry, Henry

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